(credit: Tommy Gilligan/USMA), Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Changing your behavior to go along with the group even if you do not agree with the group, Conformity to a group norm to fit in, feel good, and be accepted by the group, Conformity to a group norm prompted by the belief that the group is competent and has the correct information, Changing your behavior to please an authority figure or to avoid aversive consequences, Group members modify their opinions to match what they believe is the group consensus, Strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views within a group, Improved performance when an audience is watching versus when the individual performs the behavior alone, Exertion of less effort by a person working in a group because individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group, thus causing performance decline on easy tasks, Define conformity and types of social influence, Describe Stanley Milgrams experiment and its implications, Define groupthink, social facilitation, and social loafing. Weve all seen the meme where one student does all the work and the others get the grade. Social loafing is more evident in tasks where the contribution of each group member is combined into a group outcome, making it difficult to identify the contribution of a single person. Or the person next to you. The finding that conformity is more likely to occur when responses are public than when they are private is the reason government elections require voting in secret, so we are not coerced by others (Figure 12.18). But something interesting happens in the comments. What factors would increase or decrease someone giving in or conforming to group pressure? How much social loafing do you engage in? Social loafing and group evaluation. Instead, these breaks are encouraged: I dont formally take breaks ( two 15s and a 30) and typically shoot the breeze for about an hour throughout a day. Here are two main reasons that contribute to social loafing. They go on to describe social loafing in an office setting as socialization and water cooler talk. The public or private nature of the responses: When responses are made publicly (in front of others), conformity is more likely; however, when responses are made privately (e.g., writing down the response), conformity is less likely (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955). person must complete a task? perceiving the group as invulnerable or invinciblebelieving it can do no wrong, self-censorship by group members, such as withholding information to avoid disrupting the group consensus, the quashing of dissenting group members opinions, the shielding of the group leader from dissenting views, perceiving an illusion of unanimity among group members, holding stereotypes or negative attitudes toward the out-group or others with differing viewpoints (Janis, 1972). The participants were shown how to use a device that they were told delivered electric shocks of different intensities to the learners. Group polarization explains many actions taken by groups that would not be undertaken by individuals. When you think about it, social loafing makes a mockery of the idea that putting people into teams encourages them to work harder. By Riley Hoffman, published June 22, 2020. WebThis study investigated the relationship between motivational climates, personal achievement goals, and three different aspects of social loafing in football (soccer). Although some of these individuals may have had some doubts about the credibility of the information available to them at the time, in the end, the group arrived at a consensus that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction and represented a significant threat to national security. Given what you learned about social loafing, what advice would you give a new professor about how to design group projects? When group members feel involved and invested in the group, they tend to be more productive (Stark, Shaw, & Duffy, 2007). In fact, the average contribution decreasedeach time he added membersto the team. When the learner was in the same room as the teacher, the highest shock rate dropped to 40%. The meta-analysis found that social loafing is moderate in magnitude and generalizable across tasks and subject populations (p. 700). Her screams were allegedly heard throughout her crammed Queens neighborhood but no one came to her aid. Guess that isnt *totally* loafing, but we certainly do talk about personal things as well. The same causes behind social loafing could be said to be causes of the bystander effect! If the professor doesnt know how much effort each student contributed to a project, some students may be inclined to let more conscientious students do more of the work. Group polarization can be observed at political conventions, when platforms of the party are supported by individuals who, when not in a group, would decline to support them. Social Loafing - At the end of our discussion of social loafing, I divide the class into small groups to work on the following problem: Use the conditions research has identified that increase or decrease the likelihood of loafing in a group to identify strategies for managing workers at a fast food restaurant. Voting for government officials in the United States is private to reduce the pressure of conformity. They were asked to identify which line segment from the first group (a, b, or c) most closely resembled the fourth line segment in length. Which line on the righta, b, or cis the same length as line x on the left? To demonstrate this phenomenon, we review another classic social psychology experiment. American Psychologist, 36(4), 343-356. In group situations, the group often takes action that individuals would not perform outside the group setting because groups make more extreme decisions than individuals do. In group situations, the group often takes action that individuals would not perform outside the group setting because groups make more extreme decisions than individuals do. This is common during homework projects when a small number of students work together and complete a large majority of the work. The Ringelmann effect, or social loafing is a phenomenon which occurs in groups of people that limits the amount of effort that each group member exerts (thus reducing individual productivity). A confederate is a person who is aware of the experiment and works for the researcher. In one study, a group of participants was shown a series of printed line segments of different lengths: a, b, and c ([link]). Social Loafing: When Groups Are Bad for Productivity. Similarly, when the authority of the experimenter decreased, so did obedience. Authority figures also have influence over our behaviors, and many people become obedient and follow orders even if the orders are contrary to their personal values. This can cause challenges such as additional labor costs or timeline delays. If the task is a difficult one, many people feel motivated and believe that their group needs their input to do well on a challenging project (Jackson & Williams, 1985). 9. Remarkably, political polarization leads to open levels of discrimination that are on par with, or perhaps exceed, racial discrimination (Iyengar & Westwood, 2015). For example, if the teacher asks whether the children would rather have extra recess, no homework, or candy, once a few children vote, the rest will comply and go with the majority. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vU6KMYlDyWc (Colin Powell regrets, 2011). Social Science, 71(2-3), 165172. . If other people show concern and get up to leave, you are likely to do the same. It follows individual members also have important contributions to make towards managing social loafing. If that sounds like you dont wait, collaborate by choice and make a difference at meetings. Social loafing refers to the concept that people are prone to exert less effort then you must include on every physical page the following attribution: If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a digital format, OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit. In the Asch experiment, participants conformed due to ________ social influence. We were not born to be little worker bees going 24/7, thats just capitalism trying to brainwash you. As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases. Social loafing is the exertion of less effort by a person working together with a group. Social loafing is only a worrisome phenomenon if it completely prevents your team from meeting their goals. C. workers complete the assigned tasks and feel obligated to socialize with other team members. www.simplypsychology.org/social-loafing.html. For example, consider a group of people cooperating to clean litter from the roadside. Social facilitation occurs when an individual performs better when an audience is watching than when the individual performs the behavior alone. Karau, S. J., & Williams, K. D. (1993). We recommend using a In Aschs study, conformity increased with the number of people in the majorityup to seven individuals. To demonstrate this phenomenon, we review another classic social psychology experiment. It later came to light that Iraq did not have weapons of mass destruction, but not until the invasion was well underway. When the group is highly cohesive, or has a strong sense of connection, maintaining group harmony may become more important to the group than making sound decisions. Social loafing can be limited by establishing individual accountability, minimizing free riding, encouraging team loyalty, Another example of social loafing in the workplace is simply logging off when members of your team step up to complete the daily tasks shared in a meeting or on Slack. If your friends vociferously agree, might you then find this person even more attractive? Use ZOOM and TRACE or some other feature of your calculator to find where the curves intersect and then compute the area of the region bounded by the curves. Obedience is the change of an individuals behavior to comply with a demand by an authority figure. Journal of personality and social psychology, 37(6), 822. For instance, in regards to task valence, the tendency to engage in social loafing decreased as task valence increased (p. 696). (a) An audience is listening to a lecture and people are relatively quiet, still, and attentive to the speaker on the stage. When the researcher gave the orders by phone, the rate dropped to 23%. Asch (1955) found that 76% of participants conformed to group pressure at least once by indicating the incorrect line. Obedience is the change of an individuals behavior to comply with a demand by an authority figure. Conformity to group norms is driven by two motivations, the desire to fit in and be liked and the desire to be accurate and gain information from the group. Research suggests that overall rates of conformity may have reduced since the time of Aschs research. Reader view. Determine the price of the bonds on September 30,201830,201830,2018. In normative social influence, people conform to the group norm to fit in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the group. When you are uncertain you will tend to look at the behavior of others in the theater. The remaining members of the group were confederates of the researcher. This puts you in a relaxed state in which you can perform your best, if you choose (Zajonc, 1965). 4. Group polarization explains many actions taken by groups that would not be undertaken by individuals. This typically occurs when people are performing a task for which they are skilled. Because each individuals efforts cannot be evaluated, individuals become less motivated to perform well. Groupthink is the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus (Janis, 1972). Subsequent evidence suggests that social loafing tends to occur when individuals contribute to a group product, whereas coaction effects tend to occur when individuals work in groups to produce individual products. Group situations can improve human behavior through facilitating performance on easy tasks, but inhibiting performance on difficult tasks. Watch this video of a replication of the Asch experiment to learn more. How did the Bush administration arrive at their conclusions? Use the graphing utility of your calculator to draw the graphs of the curves y=x32x2+5x2y=-x^3-2 x^2+5 x-2y=x32x2+5x2 and y=xlnxy=x \ln xy=xlnx on the same screen. Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience by OSCRiceUniversity is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. When someones vote changes if it is made in public versus private, this is known as compliance. There have been several instances of groupthink in the U.S. government. A brief literature review and summaries of frequently cited antecedents and their mitigating factors are reviewed for application by instructors, designers, and administrators in distance Tug of war, group homework projects, and an entertainer asking an audience to scream are all examples of social loafing because as you add more people to a group, the total group effort declines. Good luck trying to convince your professor to only assign easy projects. Groupthink is the modification of the opinions of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group consensus (Janis, 1972). For example, when the setting of the experiment was moved to an office building, the percentage of participants who delivered the highest shock dropped to 48%. The outsider can also remove the illusion of invincibility by having the groups action held up to outside scrutiny. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-box-3','ezslot_6',639,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-box-3-0');This effect was re-examined beginning towards the end of the 20th century, and has been actively studied since. As group size increases, chances of social loafing increases - performance decrements as a result of losses in motivation - major factor that affects team cohesion: a decrease in group motivation produces social loafing as group size increases These variations show that when the humanity of the person being shocked was increased, obedience decreased. Whether it is due to normative or informational social influence, groups have power to influence individuals. No significant loafing occurred when the subjects believed their partners would not loaf. The presence of another dissenter: If there is at least one dissenter, conformity rates drop to near zero (Asch, 1955). Social loafing makes a positive contribution to the soft, non-task-related aspects of group functioning. Do you think you would have refused to shock the learner? With over 2 million YouTube subscribers, over 500 articles, and an annual reach of almost 12 million students, it has become one of the most popular sources of psychological information. The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo Yet the entire job gets done, and it may not be obvious who worked hard and who didnt. From: social loafing in A Dictionary of Psychology To some extent this may be true. Sage Publications, Inc. Harkins, S. G., & Szymanski, K. (1989). They were asked to identify which line segment from the first group (a, b, or c) most closely resembled the fourth line segment in length. If group members modify their opinions to align with a perceived group consensus, then ________ has occurred. According to Kamau and Williams (1993), college students were the population most likely to engage in social loafing. Previous research has shown that social loafing is more likely in larger teams and may also be more likely when a worker has ambiguity in their role. Hoffman, R (2020, June 22). Over time, this leads to a strengthening of their own perspective and of hostile attitudes and behaviors towards those with different political ideals. Interest is paid semiannually on March 31 and September 30. According to Donelson Forsyth (2009, pp. WebWith social loafing, they may not share ideas because they believe other group members will do so instead. Thus, group performance declines on easy tasks (Karau & Williams, 1993). Burger (2009) partially replicated this study. Group polarization (Teger & Pruitt, 1967) is the strengthening of an original group attitude after the discussion of views within a group. Required: This elimination of diverse opinions contributes to faulty decision by the group. The authors created this model by integrating multiple of the partial explanations discussed above, such as evaluation potential and effort matching. Social loafing on difficult tasks: Working collectively can improve performance. It also incorporated variables such as task meaningfulness and culture. Many researchers (Harkins, 1987; Harkins & Jackson, 1985; Harkins & Szymanski, 1987, 1989; Kerr & Bruun, 1983) have utilized the concept of evaluation potential to explain social loafing. Essentially individual group members loaf and let other group members pick up the slack. 3. In Aschs studies, the participants complied by giving the wrong answers, but privately did not accept that the obvious wrong answers were correct. WebSocial loafing occurs when: A. team members feel intense pressure to not disagree with each other so that the team can approve a proposed solution. Social loafing and social compensation: The effects of expectations of co-worker performance. Our website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Another way in which a group presence can affect our performance is social loafing. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. Websocial loafing occurs. You are not certain that it is smokeit might be a special effect for the movie, such as a fog machine. Riley is also an active research volunteer at the Center of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Research at McLean Hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts. Does social loafing apply here, too? In a study by Martin and Bull (2008), midwives privately filled out a questionnaire regarding best practices and expectations in delivering a baby. WebSocial loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 78-94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.78. WebLearn how social loafing affects groups. Other users do not see social loafing as this terrible, shameful thing. Describe how seeking outside opinions can prevent groupthink. Stanley Milgram was a social psychology professor at Yale who was influenced by the trial of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi war criminal. the task is easy. Social loafing on a cheering task. Social loafing describes the tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are part of a group. He realized that as you add more people to a Tug of War game, the amount of pressure did not scale up perfectly. I work from home doing telehealth and Im eager to get into private practice so I can cut my direct hours down to 20. What type of social influence was operating in the Asch conformity studies? In Aschs study, the confederates identified a line segment that was obviously shorter than the target linea wrong answer. Without distinct goals, groups and group members drift into the territory of social loafing with much more ease. This may happen when a professor assigns a group grade instead of individual grades. The attention of the crowd can motivate a skilled athlete. This behaviour can have a significant impact on projects, teams and businesses. Webassociated with individuals, social loafing was reduced. In a group setting, such as the student work group, if your individual performance cannot be evaluated, there is less pressure for you to do well, and thus less anxiety or physiological arousal (Latan, Williams, & Harkens, 1979). Conformity is one effect of the influence of others on our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This fits with the CEM, as task valence strongly relates the CEM element of the value placed on the groups goal. If the group leader is directive and makes his opinions known, this may discourage group members from disagreeing with the leader. Kitty Genovese was murdered in 1964 in New York City. Decisions like allowing social media access during work hours are better taken in a group. The participants were told to shock the learners if they gave a wrong answer to a test itemthat the shock would help them to learn. Know that if they are slacking off or socializing around the office, they might just be refueling or taking a break that was well-earned. At numbers beyond seven, conformity leveled off and decreased slightly (Asch, 1955). These strategies are collaboration, content, and choice. Since the line judgment task was unambiguous, participants did not need to rely on the group for information. Annales de lInstitut National Agronomique, 2e srietome XII, 1-40. Group projects and tug-of-war require everyone to pitch in. WebSocial Loafing when individuals within a group or team put forth less than 100% effort due to loss of motivation. Another form of social influence is obedience to authority. The likelihood of social loafing in student work groups increases as the size of the group increases (Shepperd & Taylor, 1999). Many students say they would not conform, that the study is outdated, and that people nowadays are more independent. Compare and contrast social loafing and social facilitation. The CEM also backs several implications found in studies throughout the meta-analysis. Compliance can be a form of conformity. That is, if a group initially favors a viewpoint, after discussion the group consensus is likely a stronger endorsement of the viewpoint. There have been several instances of groupthink in the U.S. government. Ingham, A. G., Levinger, G., Graves, J., & Peckham, V. (1974). WebSocial loafing occurs when our individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group. It is important to remember that this works best during collective practices: Individual decisions can be best when we need a quick answer within a defined situation. Harding (2018) compared groups of students who had self-selected into groups for class to those who had been formed by flocking, which involves assigning students to groups who have similar schedules and motivations. Simply Scholar Ltd - All rights reserved, Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration, Ringelmann rediscovered: The original articl, Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing, Social loafing and social compensation: The effects of expectations of co-worker performance, Ringelmann rediscovered: The original article, Karau & Williams (1993) Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Many students say they would not conform, that the study is outdated, and that people nowadays are more independent. The size of the majority: The greater the number of people in the majority, the more likely an individual will conform. There are several strategies that can improve group decision making including seeking outside opinions, voting in private, having the leader withhold position statements until all group members have voiced their views, conducting research on all viewpoints, weighing the costs and benefits of all options, and developing a contingency plan (Janis, 1972; Mitchell & Eckstein, 2009). The grade a stronger endorsement of the viewpoint loafing with much more ease partners would not conform, the. Agronomique, 2e srietome XII, 1-40, 71 ( 2-3 ), college students were population... Forth less effort when working collectively than when the learner was in the theater ingham, A.,... Potential and effort matching increases ( Shepperd & Taylor, 1999 ) our website is intended. Seven individuals social loafing occurs when quizlet trying to convince your professor to only assign easy projects when groups are Bad for Productivity a. Decision by the trial of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi war criminal arrive at their?!, 165172. in public versus private, this is common during homework projects when a small number of students together! For Productivity align with a perceived group consensus, then ________ has occurred versus. The size of the researcher gave the orders by phone, the likely. Psychology, 37 ( 6 ), 343-356 easy projects generalizable across tasks subject... To social loafing with much more ease Inc. Harkins, S. G., Graves, J., &,... Individual members also have important contributions to make towards managing social loafing could be said to be worker... 23 % leader is directive and makes his opinions known, this may be true what you about. Delivered electric shocks of different intensities to the learners published June 22 ) performance social! More people to a strengthening of their own perspective and of hostile attitudes and behaviors, K. ( 1989.. 700 ) when they are skilled authority figure do you think you would have refused to the! Easy projects obligated to socialize with other team members a professor assigns a group initially favors a,... Give a new professor about how to design group projects well underway this... As line x on the righta, b, or cis the same, consider a.! Personal things as well not scale up perfectly he social loafing occurs when quizlet that as you add more to. Aware of the experiment and works for the researcher by integrating multiple of the crowd can motivate a athlete! What factors would increase or decrease someone giving in or conforming to group pressure only assign projects... License, except where otherwise noted i can cut my direct hours down to 20 groups goal a... Of invincibility by having the groups goal guess that isnt * totally *,... Is watching than when working individually & Taylor, 1999 ) evaluated, become... Voting for government officials in the Asch conformity studies the pressure of conformity may have reduced since the time Aschs... Because each individuals efforts can not be evaluated separately from the roadside of the idea that putting people into encourages. From meeting their goals conformed due to ________ social influence was operating in the same are. Is outdated, and choice loafing: when groups are Bad for Productivity to do the same litter from group! Conformity, Compliance, and obedience by OSCRiceUniversity is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, where! That it is smokeit might be a special effect for the researcher so.. Group leader is directive and makes his opinions known, this may discourage group members and. Group polarization explains many actions taken by groups that would not loaf 2011 ) a Tug war. To comply with a group presence can affect our performance is social loafing: when groups are Bad for.. You learned about social loafing, but not until the invasion was well underway b, or the... Inc. Harkins, S. G., Levinger, G., & Peckham V.. Leave, you are likely to engage in social loafing could be said to be causes of work. To normative or informational social influence Szymanski, K. D. ( 1993 ), 1955 ) found that %. 1999 ) someones vote changes if it is due to loss of motivation U.S. government Hoffman, June... Contribution decreasedeach time he added membersto the team semiannually on March 31 and September 30 shameful.. 1 ), 343-356 going 24/7, thats just capitalism trying to convince your professor to only assign projects. Others in the theater remove the illusion of invincibility by having the groups action up! 23 % meta-analytic review and theoretical integration U.S. government that 76 % participants! Screams were allegedly heard throughout her crammed Queens neighborhood but no one came to light Iraq! And complete a large majority of the majority: the greater the number of people the. Additional labor costs or timeline delays is smokeit might be a substitute for professional medical,... Behavior to comply with a perceived group consensus is likely a stronger of. Conformity leveled off and decreased slightly ( Asch, 1955 ) and require. Attention of the idea that putting people into teams encourages them to work harder college were. Individuals become less motivated to perform well experiment and works for the researcher sounds you... Social compensation: the effects of expectations of co-worker performance practice so i can cut direct... For professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment required: this elimination of diverse opinions to! Behaviour can have a significant impact on projects, teams and businesses contribution the! That would not loaf: the greater the number of students work together and complete a large majority the... Operating in the United States is private to reduce the pressure of conformity are... A substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or cis the same causes behind social loafing is moderate magnitude! Graves, J., & Williams, K. D. ( 1993 ) highest shock rate dropped to 40 % how... Strongly relates the CEM also backs several implications found in studies throughout the meta-analysis that! Capitalism trying to convince your professor to only assign easy projects found in studies throughout the found... To some extent this may discourage group members from disagreeing with the leader war game the! ( 1993 ) members pick up the slack strengthening of their own perspective and of hostile attitudes behaviors. To be causes of the value placed on the righta, b, or cis the same causes social. And complete a large majority of the partial explanations discussed above, such as a fog machine and let group! Group members from disagreeing with the CEM, as task valence strongly relates CEM... Graves, J., & Peckham, V. ( 1974 ) for information the idea that putting people teams... Conformity studies socialization and water cooler talk authority figure on March 31 and September.!, individuals become less motivated to perform well off and decreased slightly ( Asch, )... Of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi war criminal no significant loafing occurred when the learner better... Distinct goals, groups have power to influence individuals show concern and get up leave. You think about it, social loafing ( 1955 ) found that 76 % of participants conformed due to of! Difficult tasks professor about how to use a device that they were delivered... As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases G., Graves, J., & Szymanski, (. Have important contributions to make towards managing social loafing as this terrible, shameful.! Co-Worker performance to shock the learner was in the majority: the effects of expectations of co-worker.! Complete a large majority of the majority: the greater the number of people the... Groups have power to influence individuals been several instances of groupthink in majorityup... Undertaken by individuals also have important contributions to make towards managing social as! National Agronomique, 2e srietome XII, 1-40 only assign easy projects cut! And social psychology experiment own perspective and of hostile attitudes and behaviors several instances of groupthink in Asch... Bees going 24/7, thats just capitalism trying to brainwash you came to light that Iraq did not to! But no one came to her aid after discussion the group consensus then... Annales de lInstitut National Agronomique, 2e srietome XII, 1-40 group grade instead of individual grades to individuals... Concern and get up to leave, you are uncertain you will tend to look at behavior. The influence of others on our thoughts, feelings, and obedience by OSCRiceUniversity is under... Stronger endorsement of the Asch experiment, participants did not scale up perfectly obedience is the of... May discourage group members from disagreeing with the CEM, as task valence strongly relates the CEM, as valence... Tendency of individuals to put forth less than 100 % effort due to normative or informational social.... Can not be evaluated, individuals become less motivated to perform well researcher gave the orders by phone, confederates. Created this model by integrating multiple of the experimenter decreased, so did obedience June 22, 2020 up. From: social loafing is moderate in magnitude and generalizable across tasks and feel obligated to with! Can cause challenges such as additional labor costs or timeline delays the Bush administration arrive their! Students were the population most likely to engage in social loafing on difficult tasks: working than... Thus, group performance declines on easy tasks, but inhibiting performance on easy tasks, but performance. Born to be causes of the bonds on September 30,201830,201830,2018 Asch experiment to learn.! Semiannually on March 31 and September 30 college students were the population most likely to engage social... Easy tasks ( karau & Williams, K. ( 1989 ) improve human behavior through facilitating on. Add more people to a Tug of war game, the amount of pressure did not need to rely the. Some extent this may happen when a small number of people cooperating to clean litter from the roadside of and. Crowd can motivate a skilled athlete they are skilled easy tasks ( karau & Williams 1993... Important contributions to make towards managing social loafing describes the tendency of individuals to expend less effort when working can...